The first Tempest to be flown was the prototype Tempest V HM595, seen here with the Typhoon tailfin, originally fitted. The Hawker Tempest, which was initially known as the Typhoon II, evolved as this suggests from the Hawker Typhoon, being fitted with a new thin section wing of elliptical planform.
TempestTempest V prototype HM595 with early 'car door' cockpit structure and small tail unit.RoleFighterManufacturerDesignerFirst flight2 September 1942IntroductionJanuary 1944StatusRetiredPrimary usersNumber built1,702Developed fromDeveloped intoThe Hawker Tempest is a British primarily used by the (RAF) in the. The Tempest, originally known as the Typhoon II, was an improved derivative of the, intended to address the Typhoon's unexpected deterioration in performance at high altitude by replacing its wing with a thinner design. Having diverged considerably from the Typhoon, it was chosen to rename the aircraft Tempest. The Tempest emerged as one of the most powerful fighters of World War II and was the fastest single-engine propeller-driven aircraft of the war at low altitude.Upon entering service in 1944, the Tempest was used as a low-level interceptor, particularly against the threat, and as a ground attack platform, in which it supported major events such as.
Later, it successfully targeted the rail infrastructure in Germany and aircraft on the ground, as well as countering such attacks by German fighters. The Tempest was effective in the low-level interception role, including against newly developed aircraft such as the.The further-developed Tempest Mk.II did not enter service until after the end of hostilities. It had several improvements, including being tropicalised for combat against Japan in as part of the. Contents.Design and development Origins During development of the earlier, the design team, under the leadership of, had already planned out a series of design improvements; these improvements cumulated in the Hawker P. 1012, otherwise known as the Typhoon II or Thin-Wing Typhoon. Although the Typhoon was generally considered to be a good design, Camm and his design team were disappointed with the performance of its, which had proved to be too thick in its, and thus created airflow problems which inhibited flight performance, especially at higher altitudes and speeds where it was affected. The Typhoon's wing, which used a, had a maximum of 19.5 per cent (root) to 12 per cent (tip), in comparison to the 's 13.2 per cent tapering to 6 per cent at the tip, the thinner design being deliberately chosen to reduce drag.
In addition, there had been other issues experienced with the Typhoon, such as engine unreliability, insufficient structural integrity, and the inability to perform high altitude interception duties. Tempest I prototype HM599; when first flown, it had the 'car-door' canopy and small tail unit. Shown here with bubble canopyIn March 1940, engineers were assigned to investigate the new wing developed by in the United States, which was later used in the.
A laminar flow wing adopted for the Tempest series had a maximum thickness-to-chord ratio of 14.5 per cent at the root, tapering to 10 per cent at the tip. The maximum thickness of the Tempest wing was set further back at 37.5 per cent of the chord versus 30 per cent for the Typhoon's wing, reducing the thickness of the wing root by five inches on the new design. The wingspan was originally greater than that of the Typhoon at 43 ft (13.1 m), but the wingtips were later 'clipped' and the wing became shorter; 41 ft (12.5 m) versus 41 ft 7 in (12.7 m).The wing was changed to a near- shape to accommodate the 800 rounds of for the four 20 mm, which were moved back further into the wing. The new wing had greater area than the Typhoon's, however, the new wing design sacrificed the fuel tanks of the Typhoon: to make up for this loss in capacity, Hawker engineers added a new 21 in (53 cm) fuel bay in front of the, with a 76 I (345 l) fuel tank. In addition, two inter-spar wing tanks, each of 28 Igal (127 l), were fitted on either side of the centre section and, starting with late model Tempest Vs, a 30 Igal (136 l) tank was carried in the leading edge of the port wingroot, giving the Tempest a total internal fuel capacity of 162 Igal (736 l).Another important feature of the new wing was Camm's proposal that the for cooling the engine be fitted into the of the wing inboard of the. This eliminated the distinctive ' radiator of the Typhoon and improved. A further improvement of the Tempest wing over that of the Typhoon was the exceptional, flush-riveted surface finish, essential on a high performance laminar flow.
The new wing and airfoil, and the use of a four-bladed propeller, acted to eliminate the high frequency vibrations that had plagued the Typhoon. The design team also chose to adopt the new engine for the Tempest, drawings of which had become available to Hawker in early 1941.In February 1941, Camm commenced a series of discussions with officials within the on the topic of the P.1012. In March 1941 of that year, clearance to proceed with development of the design, referred to at this point as the Typhoon II, was granted.
At this point, work was undertaken by a team of 45 at Hawker's wartime experimental design office at, to convert the proposal into technical schematics from which to commence manufacture. In March 1941, the issued that had been written to fit the aircraft.
By October 1941, development of the proposal had advanced to the point where the new design was finalised. Prototypes. First prototype Tempest II LA602, again with the small tail unitOn 18 November 1941, a contract was issued by the Air Ministry for a pair of of the 'Typhoon Mark II'; the new fighter was renamed 'Tempest' on 28 February 1942. Complications were added to the Tempest program by external factors in the form of engine issues: the engine and corresponding aircraft which was being developed in parallel were both terminated. Due to this previous experience on other programs, the Air Ministry was sufficiently motivated to request that a total of six Tempest prototypes be built using different engines so that, if a delay hit one engine, an alternative powerplant would already be available.
This measure turned out to be prudent, as engine development was not trouble-free on some of the variants of the Tempest.The six prototypes were built as a single Mk.I, powered by a, two Mk.IIs ( LA602 and LA607) equipped with the, a Mk.III ( LA610) with a, a Mk.IV ( LA614) with a, and a Mk.V ( HM595) with the. The Tempest Mk.I featured other new features, such as a clean single-piece sliding canopy in place of the car-door framed canopy, and it used wing radiators instead of the 'chin' radiator. Due to development difficulties with the Sabre IV engine and its wing radiators, the completion of the Mk.I prototype, HM599, was delayed, and thus it was the Mk.V prototype, HM595, that would fly first.On 2 September 1942, the Tempest Mk.V prototype, HM595, conducted its, flown by Philip Lucas from, England. HM595, which was powered by a Sabre II engine, retained the Typhoon's framed and car-style door, and was fitted with the 'chin' radiator, similar to that of the Typhoon. It was quickly fitted with the same fitted to Typhoons, and a modified that almost doubled the vertical tail surface area, made necessary because the directional stability with the original Typhoon fin had been reduced over that of the Typhoon by the longer nose incurred by the new fuel tank. The horizontal tailplanes and were also increased in span and chord; these were also fitted to late production Typhoons.
Found the Tempest a great improvement over the Typhoon in performance; in February 1943 the pilots from the A&AEE at reported that they were impressed by 'a manoeuvrable and pleasant aircraft to fly with no major handling faults'. A Tempest V, NV696, during a test flight, November 1944On 24 February 1943, the second prototype HM599 first flew, representing the 'Tempest Mk.I' equipped with the Napier Sabre IV engine; this flight had been principally delayed by protracted problems and slippages encountered in the development of the new Sabre IV engine. HM599 was at first equipped with the older Typhoon cockpit structure and vertical tailplane. The elimination of the 'chin' radiator did much to improve overall performance, leading to the Tempest Mk.I quickly becoming the fastest aircraft that Hawker had built at that time, having attained a speed of 466 mph (750 km/h) during test flights.On 27 November 1944, the Tempest Mk.III prototype, LA610, conducted its first flight; it was decided to discontinue development work on the Mk.III, this was due to priority for the Griffon engine having been assigned to the Spitfire instead. Work on the Tempest Mk.IV variant was abandoned without any prototype being flown at all. The Tempest Mk.II, which was subject to repeated delays due to its Centaurus powerplant, was persisted with, but would not reach production in time to see service during the Second World War.
Continual problems with the Sabre IV meant that only the single Tempest Mk.I ( HM599) was built; consequently, Hawker proceeded to take the Sabre II-equipped 'Tempest V' into production instead.In August 1942, even before the first flight of the prototype Tempest V had been conducted, a production order for 400 Tempests was placed by the Air Ministry. This order was split, with the initial batch of 100 being Tempest V 'Series I's, powered by the 2,235 hp (1,491 kW) Sabre IIA series engine, which had the distinctive chin radiator, while the rest were to have been produced as the Tempest I, equipped with the Sabre IV and leading-edge radiators. These 300 Tempest Is were intended to replace an order for a similar quantity of Typhoons for the. As it transpired, the difficulties with the Sabre IV and the wing radiators led to this version never reaching production, the corresponding order was switched to 300 Tempest V 'Series 2's instead. Tempest Mk.V. The first production Tempest V JN729. Small blisters streamlining the aft upper wing attachment bolts are visible on the wing root fairing.
Long-barrelled Hispano II cannon and Typhoon five-spoke mainwheels were other identifying features of the first production batch of 100 Tempests Vs.During early 1943, a production line for the Tempest Mk. V was established in Hawker's Langley facility, alongside the existing manufacturing line for the. Production was initially slow, claimed to be due to issues encountered with the rear spar. On 21 June 1943, the first production Tempest V, JN729, rolled off the production line and its maiden flight was conducted by test pilot.
Several early production aircraft were used for experimental purposes; a number of these underwent extensive service trials at including clearances to be fitted with external stores, including 500 lb (227 kg) and 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs and 3 in (76.2 mm) rockets, although few Tempest Vs deployed such ordnance operationally during the War. On 8 April 1944, the Tempest V attained general clearance.During production of the first batch of 100 Tempest V 'Series Is', distinguishable by their, several improvements were progressively introduced and were used from the outset on all succeeding Tempest V 'Series 2s', with serial number prefixes EJ, NV and SN. The / joint originally featured 20 external reinforcing 'fishplates', similar to those fitted to the, but it was not long before the rear fuselage was strengthened and, with the fishplates no longer being needed, the rear fuselage became detachable. The first series of Tempest Vs used a built-up rear spar pick-up/bulkhead assembly (just behind the cockpit) which was adapted from the Typhoon.
Small blisters on the upper rear wing root fairing covered the securing bolts. This was later changed to a new forged, lightweight assembly which connected to new spar booms: the upper wing root blisters were replaced by small 'teardrop' fairings under the wings.The first 100 Tempest Vs were fitted with 20 mm (.79 in) Hispano Mk.IIs with long barrels which projected ahead of the wing leading edges and were covered by short fairings; later production Tempest Vs switched to the short-barrelled Hispano Mk.Vs, with muzzles flush with the leading edges. Early Tempest Vs used Typhoon-style 34 by 11 inch (83.4 by 28 cm) five-spoke wheels, but most had smaller 30 by 9 inch (76.2 by 22.9 cm) four-spoke wheels. The new spar structure of the Tempest V also allowed up to 2,000 lb (907 kg) of external stores to be carried underneath the wings.As in all mass-produced aircraft, there may have been some overlap of these features as new components became available. In mid-to-late 1944 other features were introduced to both the Typhoon and Tempest: A transponder unit was fitted, with the associated aerial appearing under the portside centre section.
A small, elongated oval appeared on the rear starboard fuselage, just above the red centre spot of the fuselage. This was apparently used to measure the aircraft's altitude more accurately.
Tempest SN354, outfitted with experimental 47 mm class P guns and standard smaller four-spoke wheelsUnusually, in spite of the Tempest V being the RAF's best low- to medium-altitude fighter, it was not equipped with the new Mk.IIC (as fitted in RAF Spitfires and Mustangs from mid-1944), which would have considerably improved the chances of shooting down opposing aircraft. Tempest pilots continued to use either the Type I Mk.III, which projected the sighting graticule directly onto the windscreen, or the Mk.IIL until just after the Second World War, when the gyro gunsight was introduced in Tempest IIs.Two Tempest Vs, EJ518 and NV768, were fitted with Napier Sabre Vs and experimented with several different Napier-made annular, with which they resembled Tempest IIs. This configuration proved to generate less drag than the standard 'chin' radiator, contributing to an improvement in the maximum speed of some 11 to 14 mph. NV768 was later fitted with a ducted spinner, similar to that fitted to the. Another experimental Tempest V was SN354, which was fitted with a, under development but never deployed, under each wing in a long 'pod'.
New Tempest IIs of the first production batch at Hawker Aircraft. Note the closely cowled engine and the carburettor and oil-cooler intakes in the starboard wing's inner leading edge.As a result of the termination of the Tornado project, Sydney Camm and his design team transferred the alternative engine proposals for the Tornado to the more advanced Tempest.
Thus, it was designed from the outset to use the 18 cylinder as an alternative to the liquid cooled engines which were also proposed. A pair of Centaurus-powered Tempest II prototypes were completed. Apart from the new engine and cowling, the Tempest II prototypes were similar to early series Tempest Vs. The Centaurus engine was closely cowled and the exhaust stacks grouped behind and to either side of the engine: to the rear were air outlets with automatic sliding 'gills'.
The carburettor air intakes were in the inner leading edges of both wings, an oil cooler and air intake were present in the inner starboard wing. The engine installation owed much to examinations of a captured, and was clean and effective.On 28 June 1943, the first Tempest II, LA602, flew powered by a Centaurus IV (2,520 hp/1,879 kW) driving a four-blade propeller. LA602 initially flew with a Typhoon-type fin and rudder unit. This was followed by the second, LA607, which was completed with the enlarged dorsal fin and first flew on 18 September 1943: LA607 was assigned to engine development.
The first major problem experienced during the first few flights was serious engine vibrations, which were cured by replacing the rigid, eight-point engine mountings with six-point rubber-packed shock mounts. In a further attempt to alleviate engine vibration, the four blade propeller was replaced with a five blade unit; eventually, a finely balanced four bladed unit was settled on. Problems were also experienced with engine overheating, poor crankshaft lubrication, exhaust malfunctions and reduction-gear seizures. Because of these problems, and because of the decision to 'tropicalise' all Tempest IIs for service in the, production was delayed.Orders had been placed as early as September 1942 for 500 Tempest IIs to be built by but in 1943, because of priority being given to the Typhoon, a production contract of 330 Tempest IIs was allocated instead to, while Hawker were to build 1,800. This switch delayed production even more.
On 4 October 1944, the first Tempest II was rolled off the line; the first six production aircraft soon joined the two prototypes for extensive trials and tests. With the end of the Second World War in sight, orders for the Tempest II were trimmed or cancelled; after 50 Tempest IIs had been built at Bristol's Banwell facility, production was stopped and shifted back to Hawker, which built a total of 402, in two production batches: 100 were built as fighters, and 302 were built as fighter-bombers (FB II) with reinforced wings and wing racks capable of carrying bombs of up to 1,000 lb. PR533, an early production Tempest F.B II.
Note the underwing bomb racks.Physically, the Tempest II was longer than the Tempest Mk.V (34 ft 5 in/10.5 m versus 33 ft 8 in/10.3 m) and 3 in (76 mm) lower. The weight of the heavier Centaurus engine (2,695 lb/1,222 kg versus 2,360 lb/1,070 kg) was offset by the absence of a heavy radiator unit, so that the Tempest II was only some 20 lb (9 kg) heavier overall. Performance was improved; maximum speed was 442 mph (711 km/h) at 15,200 ft (4,633 m) and climb rate to the same altitude took four and a half minutes compared with five minutes for the Tempest Mk. V; the was also increased to 37,500 ft (11,430 m).Tropicalising measures included the installation of an air filter and intake in the upper forward fuselage, just behind the engine cowling, and the replacement of the L-shaped pitot head under the outer port wing by a straight rod projecting from the port outer wing leading edge. All production aircraft were powered by a (2,590 hp/1,932 kW) Centaurus V driving a 12 ft 9 inch (3.89 m) diameter propeller.
Tempest IIs produced during the war were intended for combat against and would have formed part of, a proposed long-range bomber force based on Okinawa. The ended before they could be deployed.
Tempest Mk.VI Various engineering refinements that had gone into the Tempest II were incorporated into the last Tempest variant, designated as the Tempest VI. This variant was furnished with a Napier Sabre V engine with 2,340 hp (1,700 kW).
The more powerful Sabre V required a bigger radiator which displaced the oil cooler and carburettor air intake from the radiator's centre; air for the carburettor was drawn through intakes on the leading edge of the inner wings, while the oil cooler was located behind the radiator. Most Tempest VIs were tropicalised, the main feature of this process being an air filter which was fitted in a fairing on the lower centre section. Other changes included the strengthening of the rear spar and the inclusion of spring tabs, which granted the variant superior handling performance.The original Tempest V prototype, HM595, was extensively modified to serve as the Tempest VI prototype. On 9 May 1944, HM595 made its first flight after its rebuild, flown by Bill Humble. In December 1944, HM595 was dispatched to, to conduct a series of tropical trials. During 1945, a further two Tempest V aircraft, EJ841 and JN750, were converted to the Tempest VI standard in order to participate in service trials at.At one point, 250 Tempest VIs were on order for the RAF; however, the end of the war led to many aircraft programs being cut back intensively, leading to only 142 aircraft being completed.
For a long time, it was thought there were Tempest VIs that had been converted for purposes; however, none of the service histories of the aircraft show such conversions and no supporting photographic evidence has been found. The Tempest VI holds the distinction of being the last piston-engined fighter in operational service with the RAF, having been superseded by.Drawing board designs In 1944, in response to the issuing of, which sought a long-range fighter equipped with the engine, Sydney Camm initiated work on a new design, designated as the P.1027. This was essentially a slightly enlarged Tempest which was powered by the R.46 engine, which was projected to develop around 2,500–4,000 hp (1,864–2,983 kW). This engine would have driven a set of eight-bladed propellers.
The radiator was relocated into a ventral bath set underneath the rear fuselage and wing centre section: the wingspan was 41 ft (12.5 m) and the length was 37 ft 3 in (11.4 m).However, work upon the P.1027 design was soon dropped in favour of concentrating upon a further developed design, designated as the P.1030. It featured wing leading edge radiators and had larger overall dimensions of 42 ft (12.8 m) wingspan and 39 ft 9 in (12.1 m) length. The top speed was expected to be in the region of 508 mph (817 km/h), with a rate of climb of 6,400 ft/min (1,951 m/min). Service ceiling was projected to be 42,000 ft (12,802 m).
Work on both tenders was ultimately dropped when Camm decided to focus design efforts upon the more promising jet engine designs he was working on instead.Design. A Tempest V flying overhead, 1944Note the 1944-era black-white-blackThe Tempest was a single engine fighter aircraft that excelled at low-level flight. In service, its primary role soon developed into performing 'armed reconnaissance' operations, often deep behind enemy lines.
The Tempest was particularly well suited to the role because of its high speed at low to medium altitudes, its long range when equipped with two 45-gallon drop tanks, the good firepower of the four 20mm cannon and the good pilot visibility. The three-piece windscreen and side windows of the Tempest had directly benefited from examination of captured, improvements included the careful design and positioning of the frame structure, blind spots being reduced to an absolute minimum. It had a bullet-resistant centre panel made up of two layers, the outer 1.5 in (38 mm) thick and the inner 0.25 in (6.5 mm).The majority of production Tempests were powered by a single high-powered 24-cylinder engine.
All versions of the Sabre drove either a four-bladed, 14 ft (4.267 m) diameter Hydromatic or propeller. Starting with EJxxx series, on the Tempest V, both the improved Sabre IIB and IIC were used, these engines were capable of producing over 2,400 hp (1,789 kW) on emergency boost for short periods of time. Alternative engines were used on some production variants, such as the Tempest Mk II, for which a single 18 cylinder was adopted, or the final Tempest VI, upon which a Napier Sabre V was used. Early on in development, the adoption of several other engines was proposed, some of which were tested upon multiple prototypes.The wing of the Tempest was one of its more significant design features, having been developed from the Typhoon to use a thinner design approach.
The wing was of a near- shape; the aircraft's armament of four 20 mm with 800 rounds of was also embedded into the wing. The were fitted with spring-loaded which lightened the aerodynamic loads, making them easier for the pilot to use and dramatically improving the above 250 mph (402 km/h). The spar structure of the Tempest V also allowed the wings to carry up to 2,000 lb (907 kg) of external stores.
Also developed specifically for the Tempest by Hawker was a streamlined 45 gal (205 l) 'drop tank' to extend the operational radius by 500 mi (805 km) and carrier fairing; the redesigned wing incorporated the plumbing for these tanks, one to each wing. A Bristol Centaurus powered Tempest in flightThe main undercarriage was redesigned from the Typhoon, featuring lengthened legs and a wider track (16 ft/4.9 m) to improve stability at the high landing speed of 110 mph (177 km/h), and to allow for a new de Havilland 14 ft (4.26 m) four-blade. The main undercarriage units were levered suspension units incorporating which shortened the legs as they retracted. The retractable tailwheel was fully enclosed by small doors and could be fitted with either a plain manufactured tyre, or a Dunlop-Marstrand 'twin-contact' anti-shimmy tyre.During development, Camm and the Hawker design team had placed a high priority on making the Tempest easily accessible to both air and ground crews; to this end, the forward fuselage and cockpit areas of the earlier Hurricane and the Tempest and Typhoon families were covered by large removable panels providing access to as many components as possible, including and engine accessories.
Both upper wing roots incorporated panels of non-slip coating. For the pilot a retractable foot stirrup under the starboard root trailing edge was linked to a pair of handholds which were covered by spring-loaded flaps. Through a system of linkages, when the canopy was open the stirrup was lowered and the flaps opened, providing easy access to the cockpit; as the canopy was closed, the stirrup was raised into the fuselage and the flaps snapped shut.Operational history Combat. Formation of Tempest Mk Vs of No. 122 Wing returning to their base at, the NetherlandsBy April 1944, the Tempest V had attained general acceptance and was in the hands of operational squadrons; was the first to be fully equipped, closely followed by (the only to be equipped with the Tempest during the Second World War), replacing their previous Typhoons. A third unit——initially kept its Typhoons and was then temporarily equipped with until sufficient supplies of Tempests were available. By the end of April 1944, these units were based at, a new 'Advanced Landing Ground' (ALG), where they formed, commanded.
The new Wing was part of the (2nd TAF).Most of the operations carried out by 150 Wing comprised high-altitude fighter sweeps, offensive operations known as 'Rangers', as well as reconnaissance missions. Prior to the, Tempests would routinely conduct long-range sorties inside enemy territory and penetrate into Northern France and the Low Countries, using a combination of cannons and bombs to attack airfields, radar installations, ground vehicles, coastal shipping and the launch sites for the German. The build-up of Tempest-equipped squadrons was increased rapidly, in part due to factors such as the V-1 threat, although a in Hawker's assembly shop adversely affected this rate; by September 1944, a total of five frontline Tempest squadrons which comprised 114 aircraft were in operation.In June 1944, the first of the V-1s were launched against London; the excellent low-altitude performance of the Tempest made it one of the preferred tools for handling the small fast-flying unmanned missiles. 150 Wing was transferred back to the; the Tempest squadrons soon racked up a considerable percentage of the total RAF kills of the flying bombs (638 of a total of 1,846 destroyed by aircraft). Using external drop tanks, the Tempest was able to maintain standing patrols of 4.5 hours off the south coast of England in the approach paths of the V-1s. Guided by close instructions from coastal radar installation, Tempests would be positioned ready for a typical pursuit and would either use cannon fire or nudge the V-1 with the aircraft itself to destroy it.
Early Tempest V of being refuelled and re-armed by ground crew at, June 1944.In September 1944, Tempest units, based at in England, supported, the attempt to seize a bridgehead over the. On 21 September 1944, as the V-1 threat had receded, the Tempest squadrons were redeployed to the 2nd TAF, effectively trading places with the squadrons of, which became part of the Fighter Command units deployed on bomber escort duties. 122 Wing now consisted of 3 Sqn., 56 Sqn., (to March 1945), and 486(NZ)Sqn. From 1 October 1944 122 Wing was based at B.80 near, in the.
During the early phase of operations, the Tempest regularly emerged victorious and proved to be a difficult opponent for the Luftwaffe's and Fw 190 fighters to counter.Armed reconnaissance missions were usually flown by two sections (eight aircraft), flying in formations, which would cross the front lines at altitudes of 7,000 to 8,000 feet: once the Tempests reached their allocated target area the lead section dropped to 4,000 feet or lower to search for targets to strafe, while the other section flew cover 1,000 feet higher and down sun. After the first section had carried out several attacks, it swapped places with the second section and the attacks continued until all ammunition had been exhausted, after which the Tempests would return to base at 8,000 ft. As many of the more profitable targets were usually some 250 miles from base, the Tempests typically carried two 45-gallon drop tanks which were turned on soon after takeoff. Although there were fears that the empty tanks would explode if hit by flak, the threat never eventuated and, due to the tanks being often difficult to jettison, they were routinely carried throughout an operation with little effect on performance, reducing maximum speed by 5 to 10 mph and range by 2 per cent.Between October and December 1944, the Tempest was practically withdrawn from combat operations for overhaul work, as well as to allow operational pilots to train newcomers. The overhaul process involved the replacement or major servicing of their engines and the withdrawal of the limited number of aircraft which were equipped with spring-tabs; these increased manoeuvrability so much that there was a risk of damaging the airframe. In December 1944, upon the Tempest's reentry into service, the type had the twin tasks of the systematic destruction of the North German rail network along with all related targets of opportunity, and the maintenance of air supremacy within the North German theatre, searching for and destroying any high performance fighter or bomber aircraft of the Luftwaffe, whether in the air or on the ground.In December 1944, a total of 52 German fighters were downed, 89 and countless military vehicles were destroyed, for the loss of 20 Tempests. Following the Luftwaffe 's of 1 January 1945, 122 Wing bore the brunt of low- to medium-altitude fighter operations for the, which had fortuitously escaped being a victim of the extensive Bodenplatte raid, and had contributed to efforts to intercept the raiders.
During this time, Spitfire XIVs of 125 and 126 Wings often provided medium- to high-altitude cover for the Tempests, which came under intense pressure, the wing losing 47 pilots in January. In February 1945, and of converted from Spitfire Mk IXs and, in March, were joined by 274 Sqn. 135 Wing was based at B.77 airfield in the Netherlands. The intensity of operations persisted throughout the remainder of the war.Flying a Tempest, French ace claimed the first Allied combat encounter with a in April 1945. In his book The Big Show (pp. 273–274) he describes leading a flight of four Hawker Tempests from over northern Germany, when he intercepted a lone Do 335 flying at maximum speed at treetop level. Detecting the British aircraft, the German pilot reversed course to evade.
Despite the Tempests' considerable low altitude speed, the fighters were not able to catch up or even get into firing position.During 1945, a noteworthy accomplishment of the Tempest was the scoring of a number of kills against the new German jets, including the. Hubert Lange, a Me 262 pilot, said: 'the Messerschmitt Me 262's most dangerous opponent was the British Hawker Tempest — extremely fast at low altitudes, highly manoeuvrable and heavily armed.' Some Me 262s were destroyed using a tactic known to 135 Wing as the 'Rat Scramble'; Tempests on immediate alert took off when an Me 262 was reported to be airborne.
They did not directly intercept the jet, but instead flew towards the Me 262 and base at. The aim was to attack jets on their landing approach, when they were at their most vulnerable, travelling slowly, with flaps down and incapable of rapid acceleration. The Germans responded by creating a 'flak lane' of over 150 of the 'quadmount' 20 mm (.79 in) AA batteries at Rheine-Hopsten, to protect the approaches. After seven Tempests were lost to anti-aircraft fire at Rheine-Hopsten in a single week, the 'Rat Scramble' was discontinued. For a while, in March 1945, a strict ' No, repeat, No ground attacks' policy was imposed; this only applied for a few days.In air-to-air combat, the Tempest units achieved an estimated air combat success ratio of 7:1 (most of these 'victories' were against the unmanned V-1 flying bomb), accomplishing a 2:1 ratio against the single-seat fighters of the depleted Luftwaffe. The top-scoring Tempest pilot was Squadron Leader David C.
'Foobs' Fairbanks, an American who joined the in 1941. By mid-1944, he was flying with 274 Squadron. When he was shot down and made a in February 1945, he had destroyed 11 or 12 German aircraft (and one shared), to make him the highest-scoring Tempest ace. Other activities. 3 Squadron RAF Tempest and air crew during a pre-mission briefing, during the, 1944Early flights by RAF pilots found the Tempest, unlike the Typhoon, was buffet-free up to and somewhat beyond 500 mph (800 km/h).
During 1944, several veteran USAAF pilots flew the Tempest in mock combat exercises held over the south of England; the consensus from these operations was that it was roughly akin to the American. According to aviation author Francis K. Mason, the Tempest was commonly accepted as the best–performing RAF fighter in operational service. Following the end of the war, the RAF decided upon the Tempest as its standard fighter, pending the introduction of newer aircraft, many of which would be developed post-war, such as the and the, as well as the.
A number of squadrons would operate the Tempest as their final piston-engined type before converting to the new generation of jet-powered fighter aircraft that would come to dominate the next decade and beyond.The later Tempest Mk.II was tropicalised as it had been decided that this variant would be intended for combat against Japan. The envisioned role for the type would have been as a purpose-built type which would participate in the, which was a proposed long-range bomber force to have been stationed on as a forward base for operations against the Japanese mainland. Before the Tempest Mk.II entered operational service, the ended. By October 1945, a total of 320 Tempest Mk IIs had been delivered to maintenance units stationed at and; these aircraft were mainly dispatched to squadrons stationed overseas in Germany and in India, along with other locations such as.
On 8 June 1946, a Tempest Mk II, flown by Roland Beamont, led the flypast at the. RAF Tempest Mk IIs saw combat use against of the during the early stages of the.A total of 142 Tempest Mk VI were produced, which equipped nine squadrons of the RAF, five of these being stationed in the Middle East due to its suitability for such environments.
This particular variant was anticipated to have a short lifetime and their phasing out commenced in 1949. During the 1950s, the Tempest was mainly used in its final capacity as a aircraft. In 1947, the RAF transferred a total of 89 Tempest FB IIs to the (IAF), while another 24 were passed on to the (PAF) in 1948. Both India and Pakistan would operate the Tempest until 1953. Several of these aircraft remain in existence, with three being restored to airworthiness in the United States and New Zealand. The restoration of an IAF Tempest Mk.II, MW376, in was stalled due to the unexpected death of the owner in 2013, the aircraft being sold to a Canadian enthusiast; as of April 2016, MW376 was receiving extensive work at facilities in, Canada. It is being restored to an operational condition.Variants.
Camm later remarked: 'The wouldn't buy anything that didn't look like a.' . Shores, Christopher and Chris Thomas. Second Tactical Air Force Volume One: Spartan to Normandy, June 1943 to June 1944. Hersham, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Publishing Ltd., 2004. Shores, Christopher and Chris Thomas.
Second Tactical Air Force Volume Two: Breakout to Bodenplatte, July 1944 to January 1945. Hersham, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Publishing Ltd., 2005. Shores, Christopher and Chris Thomas. Second Tactical Air Force Volume Three: From the Rhine to Victory, January to May 1945. Hersham, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Publishing Ltd., 2006.
Shores, Christopher and Chris Thomas. Second Tactical Air Force Volume Four: Squadrons, Camouflage and Markings, Weapons and Tactics 1943–1945. Hersham, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Publishing Ltd., 2008.External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to.
TEMPEST is a U.S. Specification and a certification referring to spying on information systems through leaking emanations, including unintentional radio or electrical signals, sounds, and vibrations. TEMPEST covers both methods to spy upon others and how to shield equipment against such spying. The protection efforts are also known as emission security (EMSEC), which is a subset of (COMSEC).The NSA methods for spying on computer emissions are classified, but some of the protection standards have been released by either the NSA or the Department of Defense. Protecting equipment from spying is done with distance, shielding, filtering, and masking. The TEMPEST standards mandate elements such as equipment distance from walls, amount of shielding in buildings and equipment, and distance separating wires carrying classified vs. Unclassified materials, filters on cables, and even distance and shielding between wires or equipment and building pipes.
Noise can also protect information by masking the actual data. Bell 131B2 mixer, used to xor teleprinter signals with one time tapes, was the first device from which classified plain text was extracted using radiated signals.While much of TEMPEST is about, it also encompasses sounds and mechanical vibrations.
For example, it is possible to log a user's keystrokes using the inside. Compromising emissions are defined as unintentional -bearing signals which, if intercepted and analyzed , may disclose the information transmitted, received, handled, or otherwise processed by any information-processing equipment. Contents.History During World War II, supplied the U.S. Military with a device called 131-B2 mixer that encrypted teleprinter signals by ’ing them with key material from (the system) or a rotor based key generator called. It used electromechanical relays in its operation.
Later Bell informed the Signal Corps that they were able to detect electromagnetic spikes at a distance from the mixer and recover the plain text. Meeting skepticism that the phenomenon they discovered in the laboratory could really be dangerous, they demonstrated their ability to recover plain text from a Signal Corps’ crypto center on Varick St in Lower Manhattan. Now alarmed, the Signal Corps asked Bell to investigate further. They identified three problem areas: radiated signals, signals conducted on wires coming out of the facility and magnetic fields, and suggested shielding, filtering and masking as possible solutions.
Like this, were an early source of compromising TEMPEST effectsBell developed a modified mixer, the 131-A1 with shielding and filtering, but it proved difficult to maintain and too expensive to deploy. Instead, relevant commanders were warned of the problem and advised to control a 100 feet diameter zone around their communications center to prevent covert interception, and things were left at that.
Then in 1951, the CIA rediscovered the problem with the 131-B2 mixer and found they could recover plain text off the line carrying the encrypted signal from a quarter mile away. Filters for signal and power lines were developed and the control zone was extended to 200 feet, based more on what commanders could be expected to accomplish than any technical criteria.A long process of evaluating systems and developing possible solutions followed. Other compromising effects were discovered, such as fluctuations in the power line as rotors stepped. The question of exploiting the noise of electromechanical encryption systems had been raised in the late 1940’s, but was re-evaluated as a possible threat.
Acoustical emanations could reveal plain text, but only if the pick up device was close to the source. The bad news was that even mediocre microphones would do.
Soundproofing the room made the problem worse by removing reflections and providing a cleaner signal to the recorder. Such as in this was another major early source of TEMPEST radiation.In 1956 the developed a better mixer that operated at much lower voltages and currents and therefore radiated far less. It was incorporated in newer NSA encryption systems. However, many users needed the higher signal levels to drive teleprinters at greater distances or where multiple teleprinters were connected, and so the newer encryption devices included a higher level signal option.
NSA began developing techniques and specifications for filtering, shielding, grounding and separating conductors that carried sensitive plain text from lines that did not and might leave a secure environment, the RED/BLACK separation dogma. A 1958 joint policy called NAG-1 set radiation standards for equipment and installations based on a 50 foot limit of control. It also specified the classification levels of various aspects of the TEMPEST problem.
The policy was adopted by Canada and the UK the next year. Six organizations, Navy, Army, Air Force, NSA, CIA, and the State Department were to do the bulk of the work.Difficulties in implementation quickly emerged. Computer processing of intelligence data was becoming important and computers and their peripherals had to be evaluated and many proved problematical. The, a popular I/O typewriter at the time, proved to be among the strongest emitters, readable as far out as 3,200 feet in field tests. Communications Security Board (USCSB) produced a Flexowriter Policy that banned its use overseas for classified information and limited its use to Confidential level in the U.S. And only within a 400 foot security zone, but users found the policy onerous and impractical.
Later the NSA found similar problems with the introduction of cathode ray tube (CRT) displays, which were also powerful radiators.There was a multi-year process of moving from policy recommendations to more strictly enforced TEMPEST rules. The resulting directive, coordinated with 22 separate agencies, 5200.19, was signed by Secretary of Defense in December, 1964, but still took years to fully implement. The NSA’s formal implementation took effect in June 1966.Meanwhile the problem of acoustic emanations became more critical with the discovery of some 900 microphones in U.S. Installations overseas, most behind the Iron Curtain. The response was to build room-within-a-room enclosures, some transparent, nicknamed the fish bowl.
Other units were fully shielded to contain electronic emanations, but were unpopular with personnel who were supposed to work inside, calling them meat lockers, and they sometimes just left the door open. None the less, they were installed in critical locations, such as the embassy in Moscow, where there were two, one for State Department use and one for Military Attaches. A unit installed at the NSA for its key generation equipment cost $134,000.Tempest standards continued to evolve in the 1970s and later, with newer testing methods and more nuanced guidelines that took account of the risks in specific locations and situations.: Vol I, Ch. 10 But then as now, security needs often met with resistance. According to NSA's David G.
Boak, 'Some of what we still hear today in our own circles when rigorous technical standards are whittled down in the interest of money and time are frighteningly reminiscent of the arrogant Third Reich with their Enigma cryptomachine.' 19 Shielding standards Many specifics of the TEMPEST standards are, but some elements are public. Current United States and Tempest standards define three levels of protection requirements:. NATO SDIP-27 Level A (formerly AMSG 720B) and USA Level I'Compromising Emanations Laboratory Test Standard' This is the strictest standard for devices that will be operated in NATO Zone 0 environments, where it is assumed that an attacker has almost immediate access (e.g. TEMPEST Shielding RequirementsDespite this, some declassified documents give information on the shielding required by TEMPEST standards. For example, Military Handbook 1195 includes the chart at the right, showing electromagnetic shielding requirements at different frequencies. A declassified NSA specification for shielded enclosures offers similar shielding values, requiring, 'a minimum of 100 dB insertion loss from 1 KHz to 10 GHz.'
Since much of the current requirements are still classified, there are no publicly available correlations between this 100 dB shielding requirement and the newer zone-based shielding standards.In addition, many separation distance requirements and other elements are provided by the declassified NSA installation guidance, NSTISSAM TEMPEST/2-95. Certification The information-security agencies of several NATO countries publish lists of accredited testing labs and of equipment that has passed these tests:. In Canada: Canadian Industrial TEMPEST Program. In Germany: BSI German Zoned Products List. In the UK: UK CESG Directory of Infosec Assured Products, Section 12. In the U.S.: NSA TEMPEST Certification ProgramThe also has a Tempest testing facility, as part of the U.S. Army Information Systems Engineering Command, at,.
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Maneki, Sharon (8 January 2007). Center for Cryptologic History,. Retrieved 30 January 2019. All of the implants were quite sophisticated. Each implant had a magnetometer that converted the mechanical energy of key strokes into local magnetic disturbances. The electronics package in the implant responded to these disturbances, categorized the underlying data, and transmitted the results to a nearby listening post. Data were transmitted via radio frequency.
The implant was enabled by remote control. the movement of the bails determined which character had been typed because each character had a unique binary movement corresponding to the bails. The magnetic energy picked up by the sensors in the bar was converted into a digital electrical signal. The signals were compressed into a four-bit frequency select word. The bug was able to store up to eight four-bit characters. When the buffer was full, a transmitter in the bar sent the information out to Soviet sensors.
Guri, Mordechai; Kedma, Gabi; Kachlon, Assaf; Elovici, Yuval (November 2014). 'AirHopper: Bridging the Air-Gap between Isolated Networks and Mobile Phones using Radio Frequencies'.:. Guri, Mordechai; Kedma, Gabi; Kachlon, Assaf; Elovici, Yuval (November 2014). BGU Cyber Security Labs. Guri, Mordechai; Monitz, Matan; Mirski, Yisroel; Elovici, Yuval (April 2015). 'BitWhisper: Covert Signaling Channel between Air-Gapped Computers using Thermal Manipulations'.:. Guri, Mordechai; Monitz, Matan; Mirski, Yisroel; Elovici, Yuval (March 2015).
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